Social Learning

These tools use the power of social media to help students learn and teachers connect.

1. Edmodo: Teachers and students can take advantage of this great tech tool, as it offers a Facebook-like environment where classes can connect online.
2. Grockit: Get your students connected with each other in study sessions that take place on this great social site.
3. EduBlogs: EduBlogs offers a safe and secure place to set up blogs for yourself or your classroom.
4. Skype: Skype can be a great tool for keeping in touch with other educators or even attending meetings online. Even cooler, it can help teachers to connect with other classrooms, even those in other countries.
5. Wikispaces: Share lessons, media, and other materials online with your students, or let them collaborate to build their own educational wiki on Wikispaces.
6. Pinterest: You can pin just about any image you find interesting on this site, but many teachers are using it as a place to collect great lesson plans, projects, and inspirational materials.
7. Schoology: Through this social site, teachers can manage lessons, engage students, share content, and connect with other educators.
8. Quora: While Quora is used for a wide range of purposes, it can be a great tool for educators. It can be used to connect with other professionals or to engage students in discussion after class.
9. Ning: Ning allows anyone to create a personalized social network, which can be great for both teachers and students alike.
10. OpenStudy: Encourage your students to work together to learn class material by using a social study site like OpenStudy.
11. ePals: One of the coolest benefits of the Web is being able to connect with anyone, anywhere. ePals does just that, but focuses on students, helping them to learn languages and understand cultures different from their own.

Learning

These educational tools can help you to make lessons fun, interesting, and more effective.

1. Khan Academy: Many teachers use this excellent collection of math, science, and finance lectures and quizzes to supplement their classroom materials.
2. MangaHigh: MangaHigh offers teachers a wealth of resources for game-based learning in mathematics.
3. FunBrain: If you’re looking for a great collection of educational games, look no further than FunBrain. On it, teachers can take advantage of fun tools for math and reading.
4. Educreations: Educreations is an amazing online tool for the iPad that lets teachers (or students) create videos that teach a given topic. Perfect for studying or getting students to show off their knowledge.
5. Animoto: Animoto makes it simple to create video-based lessons or presentations for the classroom and to share them with students or anyone else.
6. Socrative: Available for computers, mobile devices, and tablets, this student response system engages students through games and exercises on any device they have on hand. Even better, teachers can easily assess student progress and track grades.
7. Knewton: Adaptive learning has been a hot topic in recent months, and with Knewton it’s something that any teacher can access and use. The site personalizes online learning content for each student according to his or her needs.
8. Kerpoof: On Kerpoof, students can get creative with their learning with games, interactive activities, drawing tools, and more that are both fun and educational.
9. StudySync: With a digital library, weekly writing practice, online writing and peer reviews, Common Core assignments, and multimedia lessons available, this site is a fully-featured tool for teaching and learning that can be a big help in the classroom.
10. CarrotSticks: On this site, teachers can take advantage of a wide range of math learning games, giving students practice while they have fun.

Lesson Planning and Tools

Use these tech tools to pull together great lessons and design amazing and memorable student projects.

1. Teachers Pay Teachers: Have great lessons to share? Looking for something to add to your classes? On this site you can do both, selling your own class materials and buying high-quality resources from other teachers.
2. Planboard: Make sure your lessons are organized and that your day runs smoothly with the help of this amazing online tool designed just for teachers.
3. Timetoast: Timetoast is a pretty cool for student projects, allowing them to build sleek, interactive timelines in minutes.
4. Capzles: There are so many different ways that Capzles can be used in the classroom, there’s bound to be an application that fits your needs. What does it do? Capzles makes it simple to gather media like photos, videos, documents, and even blog posts into one place, making it perfect for teaching, learning, or online projects.
5. Prezi: Want to build presentations that will wow your students? Make use of this online tool that makes it simple to do all kinds of cool things with your lessons, even allowing collaboration between teachers.
6. Wordle: Create stunning word clouds using Wordle, a great complement to language lessons of any kind.
7. QR Codes: QR codes (or quick response codes) are showing up with greater frequency in education. If you’d like to get in on the trend, you’ll need a tool to create and manage the codes like Delivr and one to read codes, like any of those listed on this site.
8. Quizlet: Quizlet makes it easy for teachers to create study tools for students, especially flashcards that can make memorizing important information a snap.
9. MasteryConnect: How are your students performing with regard to state and common core standards? MasterConnect makes it simple to track and analyze both, as well as other elements of student performance.
10. Google Docs: Through Google Docs, teachers can create and share documents, presentations, or spreadsheets with students and colleagues as well as give feedback on student-created projects.
11. YouTube: Not all schools allow YouTube, but they are missing out as the site contains a wealth of great learning materials for the classroom. There’s even a special education-focused channel just for teachers and students.
12. TED-Ed: TED isn’t just a great place to find inspiration anymore, the site also contains numerous videos that are organized by subject and can help you to teach everything from how pain relievers work to Shakespearean insults.
13. Glogster:Glogster is a social site that lets users mash up music, photos, videos, and pretty much anything else you’d like. It’s a great way to create learning materials and a handy tool for creative student projects.
14. Creaza: Want to bring your student projects into the 21st century? Creaza can make that possible, offering tools to brainstorm, create cartoons, and edit audio and video.
15. Mentor Mob: On Mentor Mob, you or your students can create a learning playlist, which is essentially a collection of high-quality materials that can be used to study a specific concept.

Useful Tools

These tools can help you to stay connected, organized, and increase the ease of building multimedia lessons and learning tools.

1. Evernote: Capture great ideas, photos, recordings, or just about anything else on your Evernote account, access it anywhere, and keep it organized. A must-have tool for lesson planning.
2. Twitter: There are so many ways Twitter can be used in education. Teachers can connect with other educators, take part in chats, share their ideas, or even use it in the classroom to reach out to students.
3. Google Education: Google offers a number of great edtech resources for teachers, including email and collaborative apps, videos, lesson plan search, professional development, and even educational grants.
4. Dropbox: Easily store, share, and access any kind of data from anywhere with the easy-to-use and free Dropbox service.
5. Diigo: Diigo lets you treat the web like paper-based reading material, making it simple to highlight, bookmark, take notes, or even add sticky notes.
6. Apple iPad: One of the most widely used, though expensive, tech tools being used in today’s classroom is the Apple iPad. With a host of educational apps being developed for the device, it’s become a favorite of teachers and students alike across the nation.
7. Aviary: Aviary is a suite of tools that make it easy to edit images, effects, swatches, music, and audio or to create and modify screen captures.
8. Jing: If you’re teaching kids about tech or just about anything else, a great screenshot program is essential. Jing is one great option that allows teachers to take screenshots as images, record up to five minutes or videos then edit and share the results.
9. Popplet: You and your students can use Popplet to brainstorm ideas, create mindmaps, share, and collaborate.
10. Google Earth: From geography projects to learning about geological processes, Google Earth can be an amazing and fast way to show students anywhere in the world.
11. DonorsChoose: Need funding for a classroom project? You can get it through this site that hooks up needy teachers with willing donors.
12. SlideShare: With SlideShare, you can upload your presentations, documents, and videos and share them with students and colleagues. Even better, you can take advantage of materials that other have uploaded as well.
13. LiveBinders: Like a real-life three ring binder, this tech tool allows you to collect and organize resources. Much better than a binder, however, the site also comes with tools to connect and collaborate and a virtual whiteboard.
14. AudioBoo: Through this tool, you can record and share audio for your students or anyone else.

Source from http://edudemic.com/2012/08/50-education-technology-tools-every-teacher-should-know-about/

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A goal of higher education is to increase our student's deep learning. Deep learning is learning for understanding and not just memory. Deep approaches to learning are involve integrative processes where students actively synthesize and connect material to existing knowledge: 

Four key ways to increase deep learning are:

1. Assignments should motivate students to learn
2. Teaching and learning activities should build on a carefully structured, integrated knowledge base
3. Use active student learning and involvement as much as possible
4. Maximize the learning interactions among students 

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Strategies for helping English Language Learners throughout the writing process.

by FRANCES HOCH

North Carolina has experienced a great deal of growth in the number of students whose first language is not English and who need language assistance in order to access and benefit from the total curriculum. Although the largest numbers of limited English proficient students are at the elementary level, increasing numbers of new arrivals are entering secondary grades. Students progress in English at different rates depending on a number of variables including educational background, native language spoken, literacy skills in their native language, and previous contact with English. In any case, students generally have the greatest difficulty becoming proficient English writers.

For a second language learner, writing is an extension of listening and speaking. Therefore, the student must be provided opportunities to build, extend, and refine oral language in order to improve written output. Since writing involves some risk-taking, it is important for students to be comfortable taking risks. They need to know that their efforts are appreciated and that the message they are trying to convey is valued over the form.

THE WRITING PROCESS AND ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS

The process approach to writing is ideally suited to the second language learner since listening, speaking, and reading can be so naturally integrated with it.

Pre-writing

Pre-writing is essential for the writer whose first language is not English. Especially at the lower levels of proficiency, students have a limited lexicon and therefore often have difficulty expressing their ideas. Therefore, teachers or other students may need to assist second language students to generate vocabulary and grammatical structures relevant to the topic. Models and samples are often helpful.

• Brainstorming ->> depending on the students’ level of language, the writing down of ideas can be done by the teacher or by native English speaking students; the teacher may need to provide some guidance by asking questions to elicit vocabulary and structures associated with the selected topic

• Word banks generated by the students or as assigned by the teacher

• Drawing and sketching ->> enable students to illustrate ideas for which they do not have the language

• Discussion with native English-speaking peers or with the teacher

• Note-taking (often with the use of charts)

• Graphic organizers for eliciting, organizing and developing background knowledge

• Dictations ->> give learners some alternative models for addressing a writing task

• Researching and gather data by viewing videos, reading, talking, interviewing, and searching reference books or internet

Drafting

At the drafting stage students write their ideas down using some of the notes, language, and structures generated during the pre-writing activities. Second language students especially need to be aware that their first draft does not have to be perfect and that the purpose of this activity is to get words on paper. Spelling will often not be accurate and there may be many grammatical errors. Some students may also insert words in their native language.

• Using notes taken during pre-writing activities ->> provides students with a starting point and a skeleton of ideas; especially useful for second language learners whose ideas are restricted by their limited vocabulary

• Sentence completions ->> may address the different ways to begin or end a paragraph or a story or may focus on vocabulary needed to describe or narrate a story

• Journal writing ->> allows students to take risks and experiment with language; it can provide a starting point for a longer writing assignment

Revising/Editing

Second language learners will also need assistance during the revising/editing stage from teachers and from other students. Changes in writing will need to address word usage and clarification of ideas, as well as grammatical accuracy, punctuation, spelling and capitalization. It is important to remember that second language students may have difficulty recognizing their own errors or the errors of their peers. A self-assessment checklist may help them monitor their own writing. However, care should be taken with peer editing groups. In addition, it is important that correction be done in a comfortable environment.

• Peer or group reviews of mixed ELLs and native English speakers

• Language expansion and sentence combining activities ->> enable students to move beyond subject/verb/object format by encouraging students to combine two or three different statements in various ways to make their sentences more complex

• Rearranging words within sentences

• Using dictionaries, including personal dictionaries, and other resource materials such as grammar books and textbooks

Word processing

Second language learners should be encouraged to use word processing programs throughout the writing process. The programs facilitate the process and are especially helpful with the composing, revising, and editing stages because they do not require students to rewrite their work. They help students format their work and produce copies which are clearly legible and professional looking. These programs are especially helpful for students who are accustomed to a different alphabet (i.e. Chinese, Russian) and are only beginning to learn to write using the romanized alphabet for English.

Translating

Translating is the least useful strategy for writing in a second language. There is often a wide discrepancy between what students can express in their first language and what their limited foreign language lexicon enables them to do. They frequently resort to using a dictionary to look up every word and end up with a literal translation that may be completely incomprehensible and even embarrassing.

RELATING STRATEGIES TO PROFICIENCY

How well English Language Learners can write is directly related to their level of English language proficiency in writing. It is important to note that language learners often make mistakes in vocabulary and grammar. As they take risks and experiment, their accuracy level may be negatively affected. It is important to realize that this is a normal part of the language development process. If too much attention is placed on accuracy, students will not progress. The following table indicates what students can do at each level of proficiency.

Proficiency Level	Description	Strategies/Activities
Novice	Students can copy words and phrases and write them from memory. They can identify, list, and label. They can write one of more familiar phrases, statements, or questions in context.	Simple descriptions to accompany visuals; paragraph completion, cloze passages, dictations, filling-in forms, cinquain poetry, organization of information on graphic organizers
Intermediate	Students can create statements and questions well enough to meet practical needs and limited social demands. They can write short messages, notes, letters, paragraphs, and short compositions and can take simple notes. They can compose a series of related sentences that describe or compare. They can narrate a sequence of events and write one or more sentences that classify, summarize, or predict.	Descriptions with visuals, cloze passages, sentence combining, elaboration, guided descriptions and narrations, compositions based on interviews, journals
Advanced	Students can write social and more formal correspondence, discourse of several paragraphs, cohesive summaries with some details, and narrative and descriptive passages. They can take notes. They can express feelings and preferences and give supporting details. They can develop an organized composition, report, or article of more than one paragraph. They can explain their point of view simply.	Detailed descriptions, sentence combining, elaboration, guided descriptions and narrations, compositions with rewrites, free compositions, dialogue journals

Source from http://www.learnnc.org/

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Tips that any teacher in any classroom can use to help ESL students learn the curriculum while learning English.

by: AUDREY L. HEINING-BOYNTON

Many Educators and administrator find the world of providing instruction for Limited English Proficient (LEP) students to be mysterious and complicated when in fact there exists a simple mantra: good teaching is good teaching. But what exactly is meant by good teaching? Good teaching in all subject areas is employing basic techniques that assist all students in learning. Some of these techniques, such as paired and cooperative learning and hands-on instruction, are ways of differentiating instruction that help meet the needs of a variety of learners. There is no doubt that instructional delivery becomes more of a challenge when there are students whose native language is not English. And when ten or more languages and nationalities may be represented in the same classroom, the problem is compounded. Nevertheless, even with a minimum of instructional delivery modifications, English language learners (ELLs) can and will grow in their abilities to communicate in English.

A goal of not only the state and federal governments but also of all ELLs is to become proficient in English as quickly as possible. LEP students who do not want to fit in with their native-English-speaking peers are rare. Therefore, motivation tends to be high on the part of the English as a Second Language (ESL) students. Nevertheless, even the highest level of enthusiasm for learning can be thwarted with tedious tasks that are beyond the student’s level of capability. Therefore, it is important that teachers differentiate tasks, taking into consideration what educational philosopher John Dewey suggested long ago: that we begin where the students are, not where we would like them to be.

It is important to remember that it is not just the task of the ESL specialist teacher to deliver instruction to ESL students. Rather, it is for all of us to contribute to the education of all children.

TIPS FOR WORKING WITH ENGLISH LANGUAGE LEARNERS

So how can classroom teachers accommodate ESL students in their classrooms? What are some tips that all teachers can utilize to facilitate their LEP students’ learning of English? What follows is a variety of strategies that all teachers in all classes can employ successfully with ELLs.

Speak clearly and in standard English.

Teachers need to model academic English with clear pronunciation and diction. Teachers should also refrain from using slang

Position yourself so that the ESL student can see your face when you are speaking.

Language learners rely on both verbal and nonverbal cues. Therefore, beginning ELLs will want to watch your mouth when you speak since they are not only hearing the pronunciation but they are also watching the words as you form them with your lips. Also, speaking while facing away from the class can muffle your voice, for example if you are speaking toward the chalk board or wall. Additionally, novice ESL students rely not only on being able to see your mouth when you are speaking but also on watching your face for other nonverbal cues to meaning.

Assign a "buddy" to your ESL student.

These buddies should be strong students who will help the ELL become inducted into the class and into the school. Initially, seat the ESL student next to the buddy so that the buddy can guide the student and answer questions at any point in the class in as unobtrusive a manner as possible.

Learn and use the student’s name.

Foreign names can be a challenge for teachers, but it is important to practice their pronunciation. Students tend to say their names quickly; ask them to repeat their name slowly, and tell them you want to learn how to say their name correctly. If you have not received any written information from the administration in the form of student files, ask the student to write his or her name for you. At the elementary school level, do not give the student an English name to make it easier for you or the rest of the class to remember or to pronounce.

For middle school and high school students, ask the student what he or she would like to be called.

At the middle school and high school levels, some ESL students intentionally change their names to English names because they want to blend in with their American classmates. Honor their choices.

Be as visual as possible.

It is good to say something in clear, concise English; it is even better to have a picture or visual to use while you are speaking that reinforces what you are saying. For example, if you are teaching a science unit on the water cycle, have as many pictures to visualize each part of the cycle as possible.

Comprehension precedes production.

Beginning ESL students understand more than they are able to produce orally. Look for other ways for students to demonstrate comprehension. If you are teaching the science concept of the water cycle, have the student put visuals in the correct sequence of the water cycle to demonstrate comprehension of the topic. Ability to verbalize will follow. Also, do not simply ask students "Do you understand?" to check for comprehension. They will almost always say "yes" to avoid embarrassment. Rather, ask students to demonstrate (if they are preverbal) or to repeat what they understood you to say.

If students can say it, they can write it.

In native language development, the normal progression of skills is first to say something and then to be able to read and write what one can say. Therefore, abundant oral practice needs to be made available to students in order to afford them the first steps of creating with language. The converse of this phenomenon is also true; if students are not able to produce an idea orally, they will probably not be able to write it. A corollary to this axiom is that students will usually write at the level at which they speak. Although there will be some students who will read and write at a higher level than their speaking ability, this tends not to be the norm. This notion becomes clearer when we think of the ability of our native-English-speaking students. It is usually true that our best writers and readers are those who have the highest level of spoken language.

Speaking louder does not aid in comprehension.

Unless the student is hearing impaired, speaking louder does not aid in comprehension. Also, speaking in an exaggerated, slow fashion only embarrasses the ELL student and does not facilitate comprehension.

Create certain predictable routines in your class.

For example, at the elementary school level, start each day with taking attendance, reading the lunch options out loud, and making announcements. If your cafeteria has dedicated lunch days, such as hot dogs on Mondays and hamburgers on Tuesdays, you may wish to have pictures of the meals for your novice ESL students. An example of a routine at the middle and high school levels would be to have homework assignments written in the same corner of the chalkboard each day. If assignments are listed on the Internet, a reminder on the chalkboard that you point to each day will help the ESL students incorporate this into their daily habits.

Learn as much as you can about the countries represented in your class.

As often as possible, honor the diversity in your classroom. You can do this through reading assignments about a particular culture that the entire class reads, class discussions about cultural practices, or assignments where the students can speak or write about their heritages. Also, learning about the cultures represented in your classroom may explain some resistant behavior or behavioral problems. For example, in some countries, students are taught in single-sex classrooms by teachers of the same sex, so some boys have never had female teachers and some girls have never had male teachers.

Keep a student’s linguistic ability in mind when selecting reading assignments.

Learning to read is a major key to any student’s success. Research says that to remain academically competitive, a student should be able to read at grade level by the end of the second grade. Imagine, then, the challenges for LEP students who arrive in the United States in middle or high school. Those challenges are compounded if the students cannot read in their native language. The teacher must plan for differentiated instruction. For example, teachers can help beginning language learners read for key points or underline topic sentences. You can also provide students with essential core vocabulary words for the lesson. The number of words should be manageable so that the student does not become overwhelmed.

A smile is international.

A smile from the teacher is worth far more than the time and energy it takes. Smiles help to assuage fears and doubts.

FINAL THOUGHTS

In conclusion, we need to remember that every student yearns to be successful. Teachers therefore must provide ways to help students achieve their academic goals. We are able to facilitate student success when we return to the original premise of this article: good teaching is good teaching. By incorporating a variety of teaching styles, accommodating instructional delivery, and motivating students to learn, we are best able to help English language learners reach their goal of becoming competent and productive communicators in English.

Source from http://www.learnnc.org/

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Effective teachers are passionate about educating their students. They want to spend their time teaching, not dealing with classroom disruptions.

Here are some classroom management tips to help teachers settle problems, or prevent them from occurring, so that they can spend more of the classroom hour on teaching and learning.

1. Take Charge of Your Class

Get everyone’s attention before beginning class. That means the lesson won’t be started, the lecture won’t begin, and nothing will be written on the overhead until everyone is in his or her seat paying attention. It doesn’t take a shout of “Let’s be quiet” or “I won’t start until everyone is ready” to get them to focus on you. It can be just as effective to walk to the front of the room and engage them with something interesting to them such as “My thermometer said it was zero this morning. It must have been freezing out there waiting for the bus” or “How many of you saw the Hunger Games?” Open with couple attention getting comments and continue until everyone is with you. Remember, don’t start teaching until all eyes are on you and everyone is in their seat.

2. Focus on the Disruptive Students

If students aren’t paying attention or busy doing other things, get them focused by using nonverbal signals of disapproval. If they are talking, pause and look toward them. If in front of the class, continue with the lesson but walk toward the problem students and stop near their seats, while still teaching. Having you so near usually shuts off the unwanted activity as the rest of the class’s attention is directed toward the misbehaving students. If there is a discussion going, direct a question to the student who is not paying attention or misbehaving. For example, say “Kevin, would you agree that the Battle of New Orleans was the turning point of the War of 1812?” Hearing his name will snap Kevin back to the class activity having the same effect without embarrassing him as if you had said, “Kevin, pay attention!” Remember to use his name when you begin to speak, otherwise he may not hear the question. Calling on a person by name brings almost anyone out of his or her reverie.

If non-verbal cues are disregarded, the next step will be imposing discipline measures within the classroom such as having them stay a few minutes after class or changing their seat.

3. Let Students Choose Their Seats

At the beginning of the school year, let students sit where they want for a few days. Then about the third day tell them that the next class period they should find a seat that they will keep permanently all year. When students choose their seats, they have “ownership” in those seats and tend to behave well in order to avoid being moved.

4. Give Incentives to Do Their Best on Assignments

If an assignment will not be collected and graded individually, students may feel they have no reason to make an effort to do a good job on the no-credit assignment. For instance, a teacher will often do an ungraded warm-up exercise to begin the class hour.

Here’s a strategy to elicit better performance on an ungraded assignment: Tell students you will randomly collect one person’s warm-up assignment and correct it. If that paper has no mistakes, then the whole class will have a shorter (or no) warm-up the next day. If a randomly selected paper is perfect, that student instantly is the class hero.

If the student has not made a real effort, then that student will be given a short homework assignment, due the next day. He or she will be penalized if it is not done. (This homework cannot be done during class time.) In most cases, students will work for peer approval by doing the assignment.

Another strategy to motivate students to stay on task would be to have students who have not stayed on task remain after class for a minute. If there is no penalty for not working, they have no reason to work.

5. Keep an Eye on Your Students

Class goes so much better when you can see your students. Turn your back on them and you may get surprised. Position your so that most, if not all of the class is visible. Watch out for shelves, computer equipment or class supplies that can block your view. When teaching, try to be facing students as much as possible.

As you work with a student at his or her desk, place yourself so you can see most of the class. As you move around the classroom, don’t follow the same pattern. By varying your routine, it becomes harder for students to be disruptive if they don’t know where you will be.

6. Establish Consequences for Misbehaving

Good classroom management starts the first day of school. Once students learn there will be consequences for misbehavior, they usually come around.

Here are three steps to help you set up consequences:

Determine what consequences will be effective with your students. Ask yourself what students don’t want to have happen—for example, adolescent students hate staying after class, being moved from a seat they’ve chosen, or receive the disapproval of their peers. Make those your consequences. (The reverse is also true,” Find out what students want to have happen and make that a possibility.” Classroom management doesn’t have to be negative.)

Tell students that there will be consequences for misbehavior. First, you will put their name on the board. Tell them that how long they stay after class depends on how the rest of the hour goes. They now control their own destiny. If they behave, they will stay perhaps only a minute. If they continue to cause problems, they will stay longer. Tell them if they become a “model citizen,” you might even erase their name.

Follow through with consequences for misbehavior. Show students that you are serious and they will take you seriously.

Classroom management, especially with elementary and junior high age students, never ends. It is an ongoing process, but once the foundation is laid, it only takes occasional reminders.

source from http://www.nea.org/

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The following is an outline of a number of language-centered methods or traditional language teaching methods, as quoted from Prator and Celce-Murcia (1979). The term approach (instead of method) is used here following Anthony’s idea.

Grammar Translation Approach

Typically used in teaching Greek and Latin, and generalized in modern languages.

1. Classes are taught in the mother tongue; with little achieve use of the target language.
2. Much vocabulary is taught in the form of lists of isolated words.
3. Long, elaborate explanations of the intricacies of grammar are given.
4. Grammar provides the rules for putting words together, and instruction often focuses on the form of infection of words.
5. Reading of difficult classical texts is begun early.
6. Little attention is paid to the content of texts, which are treated as exercises in grammatical analysis.
7. Often the only drills are exercises in translating disconnected sentences from the target language into the mother tongue.
8. Little or no attention is given to pronunciation.

Grammar translation method is the oldest method known for teaching a foreign language. This method emphasized mastery of knowledge about a language and did not aim at mastering productive skills (speaking and writing). This method was criticized when there was a need to have productive skills in learning modern languages.

Direct Method

A reacting to the extension of the above approach to the teaching of modern languages.

1. Lessons begin with a brief anecdote or dialogue in the target language, and in modern conversational style.
2. This material is first presented orally with actions or pictures.
3. The mother tongue is never used (there is no translation).
4. The preferred type of exercise is a series of questions in the target language based on the anecdote or dialogue, and answered in the target language.
5. Grammar is taught inductively; rule generalization comes only after experience.
6. Verbs are used first, and systematically conjugated much later.
7. Advanced students read literature for comprehension and pleasure; literary texts are not analyzed grammatically.
8. The culture associated with the target language is also taught inductively.

Reading Approach

This approach is selected with practical reasons, for people who do not travel abroad, reading is one of the usable skills.

1. The objective in priority order are (a) reading ability, (b) current and historical knowledge of the country where the target language is spoken.
2. Only the grammar necessary for the grammar is taught.
3. Minimal attention is paid to pronunciation.
4. From the beginning, a great amount of reading is done, both in and out class.
5. The vocabulary is expended as fast as possible, since the acquisition of vocabulary is considered more important than grammatical skills.
6. The vocabulary of the early readings is strictly controlled.
7. Translation reappears as a respectable classroom procedure.

Audiolingual Approach

A reaction to the Reading Approach, much is taken from the Direct Method, the rest from behaviorism.

1. New material is presented in dialogue form.
2. There is dependence in mimicry, memorization of set phrases and over learning (i.e. it is believed that language learning is habit formation).
3. Structures are sequenced and taught one at a time.
4. Structural patterns are taught using repetitive drills.
5. There is little or no grammatical explanation; grammar is taught y inductive analogy rather than deductive explanation.
6. Skills are sequenced: listen, speak, read, and write.
7. Vocabulary is strictly limited and learned in context.
8. Teaching points are determined by contrastive analysis.
9. There is much use of tapes, language labs, and visual aids.
10. There is an extended pre-reading period at the beginning of the course.
11. Great importance is attached to pronunciation with special attention being paid to intonation.
12. The cultural background of the target language is stressed.
13. Some use of the mother tongue by the teacher is permitted.
14. Successful responses are immediately reinforced.
15. There is a great effort to prevent students’ errors.
16. There is a tendency to manipulate the language and disregard content.

Cognitive Approach

A reaction to the behaviorist features of the Audiolingual Approach.

1. There is emphasis on communication, or communicative competence (i.e. being able to use the language).
2. Language acquisition is seen as rule (not habit) formation, deductive explanation of grammar is preferred.
3. Pronunciation is de-emphasized, since it is considered futile for most students to try to sound like native speakers.
4. Group work and individualized instruction are encouraged.
5. There is a renewed interest in vocabulary, especially the expansion of passive of vocabulary for reading purposes.
6. The teacher is viewed as facilitator rather than a figure of absolute authority.
7. The importance of comprehension, especially listening comprehension is emphasized.
8. Errors are seen as inevitable by product of language learning, systematically study, interpretation and well possible, remediation are of concern.
9. The written language skills (reading and writing) and the spoken language skills (listening and speaking) are viewed as being of equal importance, rather than the former secondary and the later primary.
10. Repetition in and of itself is discouraged; silence is recognized as useful and often necessary.
11. There is contextualization of each teaching points through the use of audiovisual aids, stories or other appropriate means.
12. The use of mother tongue and translation is permitted.
13. There is increased interest in the affective domain; the attitude of the teacher and the students are seen as important, human sensitivity crucial, and the quality of interaction a significant variable.
14. Bilingual – bicultural proficiency is seen as an ideal goal.

An Eclectic Method

The following is quoted as part of an article complied by Haskell (ed.) in selected article from the TESOL Newsletter 1966 – 1983 (p.119).

An eclectic methodology (or approach) is one which utilizes the best (or most appropriate and useful) parts of existing methods. There is the danger of eclecticism, of creating of a Frankenstein monster rather than a Cinderella. The use of the term “an eclectic method” suggests, in one sense, the need for a single, best, method to follow. It also suggests inability to be eclectic.

As in the “pragmatic” approach of Oller and the ethnomethodology which Eskey finds appealing, there is a growing awareness among ESL teachers of the need to be concerned with teaching “appropriate” use of language. If not, an eclectic method, then, perhaps we can come to terms with some general principles or attitudes, some conclusion that can be drawn from current research and thinking in the field.

1. Language learning must be meaningful, real.
2. Translation is a specialized language skill and is inappropriate from the beginning language learner (and most teachers) to rely on as a method of learning. It is a truth that, though immediately useful, becomes harder and harder to throw away the longer it is used. As used in Counseling Learning, it may be a useful tool in establishing an initial basis for comfortable communication.
3. Language learning should be done in the target language.
4. Mimicry, memorization, and pattern practice do not “teach” language.
5. Reading aloud (oral reading) while useful during the decoding stage, doesn’t teach reading.
6. Vocabulary acquisition, the use of a large and varied vocabulary, should come early.
7. Reading and writing should not be delayed but taught as soon as the student is ready.
8. Teachers need not insist upon mastery of one pattern before moving on to another, nor the presentation of one item at a time, but should provide ample opportunity for reinforcement and continuous use of all patterns and structures in meaningful real contexts.
9. Most students’ errors are not caused by language interference (less than 10 percent according to Burt and Dulay, and then mostly in the area of pronunciation). Learning strategies, incorrectly applied, are the cause of some 67 percent of students’ errors. Attention should be placed on the regularities and the universals of language rather than differences.
10. The first step in any class/program should be to determine what the student needs to learn.
11. Second language students bring a great deal of experience and knowledge about language to their learning situation. Language learning is facilitated by helping the student relate to his own experience. 
12. Communicative competences suggest that appropriateness and utility are crucial variables in language acquisition (and language must consider such things like kinesics, culture, stress, rhythm, intonation, and vowel reduction).
13. Language learning will not occur unless the student is able, wants to, and makes a personal commitment to learn. In whatever way you measure or define motivation, it will be the student’s choice and decision that determines his language-learning success. The expectation of the teacher and the program, and the support of the “community” will greatly influence that decision. Remember, “you can lead a horse, but you can’t make it drink” (unless it wants to drink).

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The definition of approach is adopted from Anthony’s definition. Approach deals with: (a) a theory of the nature of language, which include an account of the nature of the language proficiency and an account of the basic units of language structures; and (b) a theory of the nature of language learning, which is include an account of the psycholinguistic and cognitive processes involved in language learning and an account of the condition that allows for successful use of these processes.

The term design deals with (a) the general and specific objectives of the method; (b) a syllabus model, which consists of criteria for the selection and organization of linguistics and/or subject matter content; (c) types of learning and teaching activities, i.e. kinds of tasks and practice activities to be employed in the classroom and in materials; (d) learner role, which includes types of learning tasks set for learners, degree of control learners have over the content of learning, patterns of learner groupings that are recommended or implied, degree to which learners influence the learning of others and the view of the learner as a professor, performer, initiator, problem solver, etc.; teacher role, which includes types of function teachers fulfill, degree of teacher influence over learning, degree to which the teacher determines the content of learning, and types of interaction between teachers and learners; and (f) the role of instructional materials, which includes primary function materials, the form materials take,(e.g. textbook, audiovisual), relation of materials to other input, and assumptions made abut teachers and learners. 

Procedure deals with classroom techniques, practices, and behaviors observed when the method is used. This includes resources in term of time, space, and equipment used by the teacher, interactional patterns observed in lessons, and tactics and strategies used by teachers and learners when the method is being used.   

In the beginning of 21st century, the concept of method seems to be no longer the central issue in language teaching practice. Brown (2001: 15-16), therefore, proposes an adjustment by adding and refining some of the terms. Method is a generalized set of classroom specifications for accomplishing linguistics objectives. Method tends to be concerned primarily with teacher and student roles and behaviors and secondarily with such features as linguistic and subject-matter objectives, sequencing and materials. They are almost always thought of as being broadly applicable to a variety of audiences in a variety of contexts.

Technique refers to any of a wide variety of exercises, activities, or tasks used in the language classroom for realizing classroom objectives.

Various language teaching methods have been developed for TESL/TEFL. Kumaravadivelu (1994: 29) classifies the methods into three groups, namely: language-centered methods, learner-centered methods, and learning-centered methods.

Language-centered methods seek to provide opportunities for learners to practice preselected, presequenced linguistic structures trough form-focused exercises, assuming that preoccupation with form will ultimately lead to L-2 mastery. The teacher’s task is t introduce grammatical structure and vocabulary items one at a time and help learners practice them until they internalize the L-2 system. Included in these methods are he Grammar Translation Method, Direct Method, and Audio lingual Method.

Learner-centered methods seek to provide opportunities for learners to participate in open-ended meaningful interaction through language learning tasks, assuming that a preoccupation with meaning making will ultimately lead to L-2 mastery. The teacher’s responsibility is to create conditions in which learners engage in meaningful problem-posing/solving activities. Examples of this group are the Silent Way (Gatteguo), Suggestopedia (Lozanov), Total Physical Response (Asher), Natural Approach (Krashen and Terrell), and Counseling Learning Method or Community Language Learning (Curran). Nunan (1989: 97) labels these methods as “designer” methods.

Learning-centered methods seek to provide opportunities for learners to practice preselected, presequenced linguistic structures and communicative notions through function-focused activities, assuming that preoccupation with form and function will ultimately lead to L-2 mastery. The teacher’s task is to introduce formal and functional items one at a time and help learners practice them until they internalize the L-2 system. An example of this group is Communicative Language Teaching (CLT).

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INTRODUCTION

There are 5 important components in language instruction/learning. They are students, a teacher, teaching material, teaching method and evaluation. Since the end of 1970s, there has been a movement to make learners rather than teachers the centre of language learning. Learners are coming the most important part of all. It indicates the other components such as curriculum, teaching materials, teaching method and evaluation are obliged to be designed to accommodate the students’ needs and interests.

The teacher is responsible to check all the elements are running well and adapt them if they are not. Teachers have to follow the curriculum and provide, make, or choose materials. They may adapt, supplement, and elaborate on those materials and also monitor the progress and needs of the students and finally evaluate students. Materials include textbooks, video and audio tapes, computer software, and visual aids. They influence the content and the procedures of learning. The choice of deductive versus inductive learning, the role of memorization, the use of creativity and problem solving, production vs. reception, and the order in which materials are presented are all influenced by the materials. Technology, such as OHP, slides, video and audio tape recorders, video cameras, and computers, supports instruction/ learning.

Therefore, it is important for us, as the teachers to know what the characteristics of the materials are, the various kinds of the materials, and how to use the materials and media in language learning. To discuss it, Gerhard explained specifically in the 5th chapter of his book entitled EFL/ESL Materials and Media. Some other references have been taken for supporting the content of this chapter report.

CHAPTER REPORT

There are several significant points to recognize the characteristic the EFL/ESL materials and media.

Who creates the materials available to EFL/ESL teachers?

Four groups of people are involved in designing the materials available nowadays. Firstly, publishing companies which produce complete materials for the learners starting from basic level to advance. The materials are varied starting from reading, writing, listening, speaking, grammar, survival English, vocabulary building, cross-cultural communication, pronunciation, English for business, TOEFL preparation, vocational literature and more. When we teach in private language schools/business, probably we’ll use these commercial materials because of its complete texts. Secondly, government agencies committee whose materials are mostly used in public school in a country with centralized educational system. Some countries usually establish special committees that either produce their own texts or solicit proposals from teachers to produce text. After being approved by the central committee, these texts are produced and used in the schools. Thirdly, if we teach in certain university, well-established private language school & corporation with language program, we will use materials from curriculum development teams which are produced by teachers who have some EFL/ESL teaching experience. Eventually, if we belong to the teachers who are not satisfied with the text, we probably adapt the text or design entire lesson with materials we create ourselves.

What are the advantages and disadvantages of commercial materials?

Advantages:

1. Saving time
2. Guidance
3. Accompanying teaching manuals
4. Providing lessons with some useful suggestions or technique

Disadvantages:

1. Problem of ideology conflict
2. Blindly follow their assigned text
3. Culturally diverse and geographically dissimilar

What are authentic materials? What types are available?

Authentic materials include anything that is used as a part of communication. Nunan (1999) defines authentic materials as spoken or written language data that has been produced in the course of genuine communication, and not specifically written for purposes of language teaching. In fact, in his teaching he encourages his students to bring into the classroom their own samples of authentic language data from “real-world" contexts outside of the classroom.

Types of authentic materials ESL/EFL teachers have used:

Authentic Listening/Viewing Materials

TV commercials, quiz shows, cartoons, news clips, comedy shows, movies, soap operas, professionally audio- taped short stories and novels, radio ads, songs, documentaries, and sales pitches.

Authentic Visual Materials

Slides, photographs, paintings, children’s artwork, stick-figure drawings, wordless street signs, silhouettes, pictures from magazines, ink blots, postcard pictures, wordless picture books, stamps, and X-rays.

Authentic Printed Materials

Newspaper articles, movie advertisements, astrology columns, sports reports, obituary columns, advice columns, lyrics to songs, restaurant menus, street signs, cereal boxes, candy wrappers, tourist information brochures, university catalogues, telephone books, maps, TV guides, comic books, greeting cards, grocery coupons, pins with messages, and bus schedules.

Realia (Real objects) Used in EFL/ESL Classrooms

Coins and currency, folded paper, wall clocks, phones, Halloween masks, dolls, and puppets, to name a few. (Realia are often used to illustrate points very visually or for role-play situations.)

What are the disadvantages and advantages of using authentic materials and media?

Advantages 

1. Reinforcing the students the direct relation between the language classroom & outside world
2. Offering a way to contextualize language learning 

Disadvantages 

1. Taking time & effort to locate authentic materials
2. Difficulty in making comprehensible authentic materials and media for the students
3. Rejection from certain students. e.g. Rejecting TV comedy or games. 

How do EFL/ESL teachers use authentic materials and media?

Authentic materials sometimes are used to get beyond the limitation of a text. I will try to explain one of the example in using it. First the teacher informed the student about his interest in ordering food in a restaurant. The students learned how to order food. The teacher took some pictures of food from magazine and after she ordered the students to work in time, he distributed the real menus he got from a restaurant. The students were asked to create a new menu, including the picture had been given. They cut the pictures. Then, the student made their own dialogue, presented in front of the class stimulated by using realia (e.g. plastic eating utensils and food order checks) and role-play cards.

What problems do some EFL/ESL teachers have with materials and media?

1. The “I am forced to teach from the book” problem

The teachers feel helpless in the face of being creative with materials and media when they need to follow a particular text. Some teachers give in under pressure and simply follow the prescribed lesson. However, some other teaches creatively by bringing photos or picture corresponding to the story line in reading material to make the reading more vivid.

2. The “ Let the textbook do the teaching” problem

As I have summed up above, following text can save time however the texts should not be meant to be blindly plodded through and they realize that teaching guides are not only other teachers’ ways to teach lesson.

3. The “Where can I find authentic EFL materials?” Problem

Probably this is a problem of new EFL teachers. Mostly, they are lack of experience in locating such materials. Therefore they conclude it difficult. Actually, they could get these materials from TV, newspapers; even in a very isolated area creative teachers still can use the available and comprehensible authentic materials such as drawing or writing in the air.

COMMENT AND CONCLUSION

Despite of the five elements in language instruction, and learners should be the centre of instruction. However, some findings in research and several problems above reveal that materials often control the instruction, since teachers and learners tend to rely heavily on them. Materials that are appropriate for a particular class need to have an underlying instructional philosophy, approach, method and technique which suit the students and their needs. They should have correct, natural, current and standard English. Teachers need to look for good materials, both commercial and non-commercial, all the time. They also need to be aware of commercialism and copyright issues concerning materials.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Gebhard, J.G.2000. Teaching English as a Foreign or Second Language. Michigan: The University of Michigan Press.

Gray, J. 1981. Starting English: A new beginner’s course. London: Cassell.

Harmer, J. 2007.How to Teach English. Edinburgh: Longman.

Kitao, K. 1997. The Internet TESL Journal, Vol. IV, No. 4, April

Leo, Sutanto. 2000. English for Professional Waiters. Jakarta: PT Gramedia

Oura. G.K. Authentic Task- Based Materials: Bringing the Real World Into the Classroom

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Emily Dickinson

Because I could not stop for Death,

He kindly stopped for me;

The carriage held but just ourselves
And Immortality.

We slowly drove, he knew no haste,

And I had put away
My labor, and my leisure too,
For his civility.

We passed the school where children played,

Their lessons scarcely done;
We passed the fields of gazing grain,
We passed the setting sun.

We paused before a house that seemed

A swelling of the ground;
The roof was scarcely visible,
The cornice but a mound.

Since then 't is centuries; but each

Feels shorter than the day
I first surmised the horses' heads
Were toward eternity.

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By : Robert P. Tristram Coffin

Someone whom no man can see

is lighting candles in the tree.

Star by star, on every bough

There is a taper burning now.

Quietly, the forest through,

Eyes are lit up, two by two.

The silky moles and velvet mice

Have eyes as sharp as cracks in ice.

Dark-lanterns of the owls begin

To burn like emeralds and sin.

The raccoon built of hidden wire

Prowls by the glow of his brain-fire.

Herons stand as still as years

And see the fish swim through their tears.

All the creatures of the night

Are busy being their own light.

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